Historical Ages

1. Formerly Kung-nî was present as one of the guests at the Kâ sacrifice; and when it was over, he went out and walked backwards and forwards on the terrace over the gate of Proclamations, looking sad and sighing. What made him sigh was the state of Lû. Yen Yen was by his side, and said to him, 'Master, what are you sighing about?' Confucius replied, 'I never saw the practice of the Grand course, and the eminent men of the three dynasties; but I have my object (in harmony with theirs).

2. 'When the Grand course was pursued, a public and common spirit ruled all under the sky; they chose men of talents, virtue, and ability; their words were sincere, and what they cultivated was harmony. Thus men did not love their parents only, nor treat as children only their own sons. A competent provision was secured for the aged till their death, employment for the able-bodied, and the means of growing up to the young. They showed kindness and compassion to widows, orphans, childless men, and those who were disabled by disease, so that they were all sufficiently maintained. Males had their proper work, and females had their homes. (They accumulated) articles (of value), disliking that they should be thrown away upon the ground, but not wishing to keep them for their own gratification. (The), laboured) with their strength, disliking that it should not be exerted, but not exerting it (only) with a view to their own advantage[3]. In this way (selfish) schemings were repressed and found no development. Robbers, filchers, and rebellious traitors did not show themselves, and hence the outer doors remained open, and were not shut. This was (the period of) what we call the Grand Union.

3. 'Now that the Grand course has fallen into disuse and obscurity, the kingdom is a family inheritance. Every one loves (above all others) his own parents and cherishes (as) children (only) his own sons. People accumulate articles and exert their strength for their own advantage. Great men imagine it is the rule that their states should descend in their own families. Their object is to make the walls of their cities and suburbs strong and their ditches and moats secure. The rules of propriety and of what is right are regarded as the threads by which they seek to maintain in its correctness the relation between ruler and minister; in its generous regard that between father and son; in its harmony that between elder brother and younger; and in a community of sentiment that between husband and wife; and in accordance with them they frame buildings and measures; lay out the fields and hamlets (for the dwellings of the husbandmen); adjudge the superiority to men of valour and knowledge; and regulate their achievements with a view to their own advantage. Thus it is that (selfish) schemes and enterprises are constantly taking their rise, and recourse is had to arms; and thus it was (also) that Yü, Thang, Wan and Wû, king Khang, and the duke of Kâu obtained their distinction. Of these six great men every one was very attentive to the rules of propriety, thus to secure the display of righteousness, the realisation of sincerity, the exhibition of errors, the exemplification of benevolence, and the discussion of courtesy, showing the people all the normal virtues. Any rulers who did not follow this course were driven away by those who possessed power and position, and all regarded them as pests. This is the period of what we call Small Tranquillity.'

Historical writings

The beginning of human history lies so far back in time that it is shrouded in primitive darkness. For us who live in modern times, are no written records the only source of learning about the ancient world? During the time of Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor, lived Cang Jie, who served as a historian. So it has apparently been a practice since time immemorial to keep an office in charge of records. In the Book of Rites it is said: "Historians carry brushes in attendance on the king's left and right." Shi "historian" literally means "to keep records". In ancient times, the left-hand historian kept records of what was done, and the right-hand historian, of what was said... When the state of Qin unified the seven states, it was found that each of the warring states had its own ce "records". Since these were simple records without running commentaries, they used the term ce "bamboo slips" to designate them... Zichang (Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Great Historian Shiji, created an) arrangement that, though differing from the ancient form, serves to relate historical facts in neat order. His merits include his effort to create a factual record without evasion or omission, his comprehensiveness in covering the sources, his purity of style, his extensive observations, and his logical clarity; and his faults include his love for the strange, contrary to the spirit of the Classics, and the absence of order in his arrangement of certain materials.

When Emperor Xiao Hui (r. 194-188 BC) was gathered to his fathers, his mother, Empress Lü, acted as regent, and both Ban Gu (author of the History of Former Han Hanshu) and Sima Qian devoted a sovereign annal to her. This is contrary to the principle found in the Classics, and did not do justice to the actual fact. Why? Because since the time of Baoxi (the mythical ruler Fuxi), nobody has ever heard of a female ruler! The hard fate the Han met with should not be made a pattern for all later dynasties. It was king Wu of Zhou (11th century BC) who first swore that a hen should not herald the approach of morning; and duke Huan of Qi (r. 685-644), in a conference, stated that no woman should be allowed to interfere with the affairs of the state...

When we come to the treatment of contemporaries, many facts are often distorted. While Confucius' judgments concerning the periods of duke Ding (r. 510-495) and duke Ai (r. 495-467) of Lu are couched in subtle language, secular opinions are still influenced by selfish interests. If the subject is from a family of great prestige and honor, he tends to be eloquently adorned, even though he may be a mediocrity. But should the subject be a frustrated scholar, all his virtue will not save him from ridicule. This blowing on the already frostbitten and puffing at the already bedewed, or fabrication of hot and cold with the brush, is a common distortion involved in writing about a contemporary, and a thing to be deeply deplored.

Ordinary Biographies

The historiographical style of imperial "arranged" biographies (ji) and ordinary "down-handed" biographies (zhuan) was first used for the Records of the Great Historian (Shiji) and the Book of Han (Hanshu). "To arrange" means, to tie years together (bian nian). "To hand down" means, to collect events in a line. "Tieing years together" means, to put the years and months of an emperor's or a king's rule in calendrical order, like it is done in the Classic Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu jing). "To collect events in a line" means, to report deeds and conducts of ordinary persons and ministers, like it is done in the Spring and Autumn Tradition of Zuo (Zuozhuan; often seen as a commentary to the Spring and Autumn annals). The Spring and Autumn annals have commentaries (zhuan) to explain the Classic (jing), and likewise the Shiji and Hanshu have ordinary biographies (zhuan) to interpret the imperial biographies (ji).

Inquiring the writings according to these rules, one will find that they are not followed very well... For instance, for the hegemonial king Xiang Yu, an ordinary biography would suit better, although his biography was entitled as imperial biography. It was not right to list him, an usurper of the throne, side by side with the Sons of Heaven. He should better be put in the right place and overall made an ordinary biography. Seeking to make him an imperial biography, was not right...

The difference between imperial and ordinary biographies is the same kind of distinction as that of rhapsodies and regular poems. But later, people continued to disrespect this difference, like Fan Ye when he wrote the History of (Later) Han (Hou Han shu). he wrote a collective biography for the imperial consorts, but what actually should be an ordinary biography, he called an imperial biography. Chen Shou, recording the reigns of the emperors Sun (of Wu) and Liu (of Shu) in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, what actually should be imperial biographies, he called ordinary biographies. Examining what numerous scholars have written, we see that they barely employ the real character of imperial and ordinary biographies.

Spring and Autumn Annals 1.2

3rd month; the Duke hastened together with Yifu from (the small state of) Zhu to form a coalition at Mie.

Zuo's Tradition 1.2:
3 month. The Duke hastened together with Yifu from Zhu to form a coalition at Mie. "Yifu from Zhu" is Zhu Kezi. Because he was not yet enfeoffed with a title by the King of Zhou, he is not entitled here, but instead he is called with his honorific style Yifu "Father of Normative Appearance". The coalition with Zhu was founded because Duke Yin acted as Prince Regent (for the later Duke Huan) and was searching for good relationship with other states.

Gongyang's Commentary 1.2:
Third Month. The Duke hastened together with Zhu Lou "Yifu" to form a coalition at Mei (!).
What does "hasten together" (ji 及) mean? It means "participate". Both "come together" (hui 會) and "meet" (jih 暨) mean "participate" too; but why do the Annals sometimes say "come together", sometimes "hasten together", and sometimes "meet"? (Note: although the text does not use these two words, the Gongyang Commentary explains all three terms here.) "Come together" (hui)
means "assemble"; "hasten together" (ji) means "urgently"; "meet" (jih)
means "find together". "Hasten together" (ji) means that both sides are willing to meet; "find together" (jih) means that there is no other way. Who is Yifu? He was the Lord of Zhu (or Zhulou). Why is he recorded with his style and not with his name? It is, to honour him. Why is he honoured here? Because he formed a coalition with the Duke. There are many nobles forming a coalition with the Duke; why then is only Yifu especially honoured here? Because he is worth being honoured. Why? Because his coalition with the Duke had the effect that he gradually made steps into the direction of the right cause. What is Mei? It is the point of meeting.

Guliang's Commentary 1.2:
Third month. The Duke hastened together with Yifu from Zhu to form a coalition at Mei (!).
What does "hastened together" mean? It means that the state of Lu was willing to meet with the state of Zhu. "Yi" is only the style of Yifu. "Fu" means, "mentor", and it is a beautiful addressing for a lower aristocrate. Why do the Annals not say "Viscount of Zhu"? Because he was at that stime still a small person and not yet enfeoffed by the King of Zhou. The day of the meeting is not recorded because the coalition treaty was changed later. Mei is the name of a place.

Di Xin, (the last ruler of Shang)

His first name was Shou; this was Zhow; he is also called Shouxin. In his first year, which was a jihai year (1101 BC), when he came to the throne, he dwelt in Yin. He gave appointments to the Marquis of Jiu (or Chou 仇), Zhou (the Marquis of Zhou was the Chief of the West 西伯, Ji Chang 姬昌), and Yu.
3rd year, a sparrow produced a hawk.
4th year, he had a great hunting in Li. He invented the punishment of roasting.
5th year, summer, he built the tower of Nandan. There was a shower of earth in Bo.
6th year, the Chief of the West offered sacrifice for the first time for his ancestors in Bi.
9th year, the royal forces attacked the state of Su, and brought away Princess Daji (not: Danji!) as a captive. The king made an apartment for her, with walls of carnation stone, and the doors all-adorned with gems.
10th year, summer, 6th month, he hunted in the western borders.
17th year, the Chief of the West smote the Di tribes. In the winter, the king made a pleasure excursion to Ji.
21st year, spring, 1st month, the feudal lords went to Zhou to do homage. Boyi and Shuqi betook themselves to Zhou from Guzhu.
22nd year, winter, he had a great hunting along the Wei River.
23rd year, he imprisoned the Chief of the West in Youli.
29th year, he liberated the Chief of the West, who was met met by many of the feudal lords, and escorted back to Cheng.
30th year, spring, 3rd month, the Chief of the West lead the feudal lords to the court with their tributes.
31st year, the Chief of the West began to form a regular army in Bi, with Lü Shang as its commander.
32nd year, there was a conjunction of the five planets in Fang. A red crow lighted on the altar to the spirits of the land of Zhou. The people of Mi invaded Ruan, when the Chief of the West led a force against Mi.
33rd year, the people of Mi surrendered to the army of Zhou, and were removed to Cheng. The King granted power to the Chief of the West to punish and attack offending states on his own discretion.
34th year, the forces of Zhou took Qi and Yu; and then attacked Chong, which surrendered. Winter, 12th month, the Kunyi people overran Zhou.
35th year, great famine in Zhou. The Chief of the West removed from Cheng to Feng.
36th year, spring, 1st month, the feudal lords went to the court at Zhou; and then they smote the hordes of the Kunyi. The Chief of the West made his heir-son Fa build the capital Hao.
37th year, Zhou built a royal college.
39th year, the great officer Xinjia fled to Zhou.
40th year, Zhou erected the Soul Terrace (Lingtai). The King sent Jiao Li to seek for gems in the territory of Zhou.
41st year, spring, 3rd month, Chang, the Chief of the West (later called King Zhou Wenwang), died (; he was buried in Bi).
42nd year, Fa, the Chief of the West (later King Zhou Wuwang), obtained the Vermillion Book from Lü Shang. A girl changed into a man.
43rd year, spring, the King of Shang had a grand review. Part of Mount Yao fell down.
44th year, Fa, the Chief of the West, smote Li.
47th year, the recorder of the interior, Xiang Zhi, fled to Zhou.
48th year, the ominous Yi goat was seen. Two suns appeared together.
51st year, winter, 11th month, day wuzi, the army of Zhou crossed the Mengjin Ford; but returned. The King of Shang imprisoned the Viscount of Ji, and put Prince Bigan to death; the Viscount of Wei fled away (to Zhou).
52nd year, (gengyin), Zhou made its first attack on Yin (Shang). In the autumn, the army of Zhou camped in the plain of Xian. In the winter, 12th month, the army of Zhou made offerings to the Highest Deity. The men of Yong, Shu, Qiong, Wu, Wei, Lu, Peng, and Pu joined the Zhou army to attack Yin (Shang).
From the time when Tang the Great destroyed the Xia Dynasty down to the time of King Shou, there ruled 29 kings of the Shang Dynasty, for 496 years.